The Effect of Intensive Planned Focus on Form on the Implicit L2 Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners

Esfandiari, Rajab

doi:10.22034/elt.2021.44074.2339

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	The Effect of Intensive Planned Focus on Form on the Implicit L2 Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners
Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning
دوره 13، شماره 27، بهار و تابستان 2021، صفحه 137-162 اصل مقاله (834.59 K)
نوع مقاله: Research Paper
شناسه دیجیتال (DOI): 10.22034/elt.2021.44074.2339
نویسنده
Rajab Esfandiari
Imam Khomeini International University
چکیده
Attention to form in input now seems to have found its way into second language acquisition (SLA), and it is recommended that language learners’ consciousness be raised for language learning to occur and become intake. Input enhancement and output have received considerable attention in recent SLA as two attention-drawing devices. In the present study, we chose visual input enhancement to examine its effect on noticing and acquisition. To that end, two classes were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Both groups were exposed to ten different short stories for ten sessions for five weeks, but the type of exposure was different for each group. The English third person singular was highlighted for the experimental group through formatting techniques such as underlining, italicizing, and capitalising. Language learners in the experimental group were supposed to answer the questions following each short story and write a summary for it. Both groups were post tested one week after the treatment on both Noticing Test and a Written Production Test. The results of two independent t-tests showed the superiority of experimental group over the control group in noticing and learning the third person singular. Implications of the findings are discussed.
کلیدواژه‌ها
Input؛ Intake؛ Planned Focus on Form؛ Noticing

مراجع
Bretta, A. (1989). Attention to form or meaning? Error treatment in the Bangalore project. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 283-303. Bretta, A., & Davies, A. (1985). Evaluation of the Banglore project. ELT Journal, 9(2), 121-127. Burgess, J., & Etherington, S. (2002). Focus on grammatical form: Explicit or implicit? System, 30(4), 433-458. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Cook, V. (1994). Universal grammar and the learning and teaching of second languages. In T. Odlin (Ed.), Perspectives on pedagogical grammar (pp. 25-48). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cook, V., & Newson, M. (1996). Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. DeKeyser, R.M. (1998). Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspective on learning and practicing second language grammar. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 42-63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Doughty, C. (1991). Second language instruction does make a difference. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(3), 431-469. Doughty, C., & Varela, E. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 114-138). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998a). Issues and terminology. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.1-11). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998 b). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press. Ellis, N. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interaction of explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(1), 289-318. Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1998). Teaching and research: Options in Grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 39-60. Ellis, R. (2002). Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 223-236. Ellis, R. (ed.) (2001). Form-focused instruction and second language learning. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2002). Doing focus on form. System, 30(4), 419-432. Ellis, R., Basturkmen., & Leowen, S. (2001). Preemptive focus on form in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 35(3), 407-431. Erlam, R. (2003). Evaluating the relative effectiveness of structured-input and output-based instruction in foreign language learning. Studies in Second Language acquisition, 25(4), 559-582. Fotos, S. (1993). Consciousness-raising and noticing through focus on form: Grammar task performance vs. formal instruction. Applied Linguistics, 14(4), 385-407. Fotos, S. (1998). Shifting the focus from forms to form in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 52(4), 301-307. Harley, B. (1993). Instructional strategies and SLA in early French immersion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2),425-260. Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J.B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269-293). HarmondsWorth: Penguin. Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the noticing hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(1), 541-577. Izumi, S., & Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 239-278. Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M., & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(3), 421-452. Jensen, W. D., & Winter, T. (2003). Exact repetition as input enhancement in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 53(3),373-428. Kamiya, N. (2012). Proactive and reactive focus on form and gestures in EFL classrooms in Japan. System, 40(3), 386–397. Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principals and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen, S. D. (1983). Second language acquisition theory and the preparation of teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S. D. (1985). Input hypothesis. London: Longman. Krashen, S. D. (1993). The effect of formal grammar teaching: Still peripheral. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 409-411. Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach. New York: Pergamon. Lantolf, J. (1996). SLA theory building: “Letting all the flowers bloom.” Language Learning, 46(4), 713-749. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Leeman, J., Arteagoitia, I., Fridman, B., & Doughty, C. (1995). Integrating attention to form with meaning: Focus on form in content-based Spanish instruction. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 217-258). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Leow, R. P. (1997). The effects of input enhancement and text length on adult L2 reader’s comprehension and intake in second language acquisition. Applied Language Learning, 8(2), 151-182. Long, M. H. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly, 17(3), 359-382. Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Long, M. H. (1996). The role of linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T.K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of language acquisition: Vol. 2. Second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). New York: Academic. Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quarterly, 26(1), 27-56. Long, M. H., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Long, M. H., Inagaki, S., & Ortega, L. (1998). The role of implicit negative feedback in SLA: Models and recast in Japanese and Spanish. The Modern Language Journal 82(3), 357-371. Lyster, R. (1998). Recasts, repetition, and ambiguity in L2 classroom discourse. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20(1), 51-81. Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Language learning, 19(3), 37-66. MacWhinney, B. (1997). Implicit and explicit processes: Commentary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 277-282. Muranoi, H. (2000). Focus on form through interaction enhancement. Language Learning, 50(4), 617-673. Nassaji, H. (2013). Participation structure and incidental focus on form in adult ESL classrooms. Language Learning, 63(4), 835-869. Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. Richards, T.C., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University press. Robinson, P. (1997). Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47(1), 45-99. Rouhi, A. (2001). Toward operationalizing focus on form in EFL classroom setting. (Unpublished MA thesis), University of Tabriz, Tabriz. Salaberry, R. (1997). The role of input and output practice in second language acquisition. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 53(2), 422-451. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7(2), 118-132. Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA. Studies in Second language Acquisition, 15(2), 165-179. Sheen, R. (2003). Focus on form-a myth in the making? ELT Journal, 57(3), 225-233. Shook, D. (1994). FL/L2 reading, grammatical information, and the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning, 5(2), 57-93. Spada, N. (1997). Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching, 30(2), 73-87. Soodmand Afshar, H. (2021). Task-related focus-on-forms foreign language vocabulary development: Focus on spoken form and word parts. System, 96. 10.1016/j.system.2020.102406. Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University press. VanPatten, B., & Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit instruction and output processing. Studies in second language Acquisition, 15(2), 225-241. VanPatten, B., & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: processing instruction and communicative tasks. In F. Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham, & R. Weber (Eds.), Second language acquisition theory and pedagogy (pp. 169-185). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. White, L., Spada, N., Lightbown, P., & Ranta, L. (1991). Input enhancement and L2 question formation. Applied Linguistics, 12(4), 416-432. Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, J. (1999). Memory, attention, and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(1), 1-48. Williams, J., & Evans, J. (1998). What kind of focus and on which forms? In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 139-155). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press. Wong, W. (2001). Modality and attention to meaning and form in the input. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(3), 345-368.
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The Effect of Intensive Planned Focus on Form on the Implicit L2 Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners

Bretta, A. (1989). Attention to form or meaning? Error treatment in the Bangalore project. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 283-303.

Bretta, A., & Davies, A. (1985). Evaluation of the Banglore project. ELT Journal, 9(2), 121-127.

Burgess, J., & Etherington, S. (2002). Focus on grammatical form: Explicit or implicit? System, 30(4), 433-458.

Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Cook, V. (1994). Universal grammar and the learning and teaching of second languages. In T. Odlin (Ed.), Perspectives on pedagogical grammar (pp. 25-48). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cook, V., & Newson, M. (1996). Chomsky’s Universal Grammar. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.

DeKeyser, R.M. (1998). Beyond focus on form: Cognitive perspective on learning and practicing second language grammar. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 42-63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Doughty, C. (1991). Second language instruction does make a difference. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(3), 431-469.

Doughty, C., & Varela, E. (1998). Communicative focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 114-138). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press.

Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998a). Issues and terminology. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.1-11). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998 b). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press.

Ellis, N. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interaction of explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5(1), 289-318.

Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, R. (1998). Teaching and research: Options in Grammar teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 39-60.

Ellis, R. (2002). Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 223-236.

Ellis, R. (ed.) (2001). Form-focused instruction and second language learning. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2002). Doing focus on form. System, 30(4), 419-432.

Ellis, R., Basturkmen., & Leowen, S. (2001). Preemptive focus on form in the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 35(3), 407-431.

Erlam, R. (2003). Evaluating the relative effectiveness of structured-input and output-based instruction in foreign language learning. Studies in Second Language acquisition, 25(4), 559-582.

Fotos, S. (1993). Consciousness-raising and noticing through focus on form: Grammar task performance vs. formal instruction. Applied Linguistics, 14(4), 385-407.

Fotos, S. (1998). Shifting the focus from forms to form in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 52(4), 301-307.

Harley, B. (1993). Instructional strategies and SLA in early French immersion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2),425-260.

Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J.B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269-293). HarmondsWorth: Penguin.

Izumi, S. (2002). Output, input enhancement, and the noticing hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(1), 541-577.

Izumi, S., & Bigelow, M. (2000). Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 239-278.

Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M., & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(3), 421-452.

Jensen, W. D., & Winter, T. (2003). Exact repetition as input enhancement in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 53(3),373-428.

Kamiya, N. (2012). Proactive and reactive focus on form and gestures in EFL classrooms in Japan. System, 40(3), 386–397.

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principals and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1983). Second language acquisition theory and the preparation of teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1985). Input hypothesis. London: Longman.

Krashen, S. D. (1993). The effect of formal grammar teaching: Still peripheral. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 409-411.

Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach. New York: Pergamon.

Lantolf, J. (1996). SLA theory building: “Letting all the flowers bloom.” Language Learning, 46(4), 713-749.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Leeman, J., Arteagoitia, I., Fridman, B., & Doughty, C. (1995). Integrating attention to form with meaning: Focus on form in content-based Spanish instruction. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 217-258). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Leow, R. P. (1997). The effects of input enhancement and text length on adult L2 reader’s comprehension and intake in second language acquisition. Applied Language Learning, 8(2), 151-182.

Long, M. H. (1983). Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of research. TESOL Quarterly, 17(3), 359-382.

Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Long, M. H. (1996). The role of linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T.K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of language acquisition: Vol. 2. Second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). New York: Academic.

Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL Quarterly, 26(1), 27-56.

Long, M. H., & Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Long, M. H., Inagaki, S., & Ortega, L. (1998). The role of implicit negative feedback in SLA: Models and recast in Japanese and Spanish. The Modern Language Journal 82(3), 357-371.

Lyster, R. (1998). Recasts, repetition, and ambiguity in L2 classroom discourse. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20(1), 51-81.

Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective feedback and learner uptake: Negotiation of form in communicative classrooms. Language learning, 19(3), 37-66.

MacWhinney, B. (1997). Implicit and explicit processes: Commentary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 277-282.

Muranoi, H. (2000). Focus on form through interaction enhancement. Language Learning, 50(4), 617-673.

Nassaji, H. (2013). Participation structure and incidental focus on form in adult ESL classrooms. Language Learning, 63(4), 835-869.

Norris, J., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528.

Richards, T.C., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University press.

Robinson, P. (1997). Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47(1), 45-99.

Rouhi, A. (2001). Toward operationalizing focus on form in EFL classroom setting. (Unpublished MA thesis), University of Tabriz, Tabriz.

Salaberry, R. (1997). The role of input and output practice in second language acquisition. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 53(2), 422-451.

Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7(2), 118-132.

Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA. Studies in Second language Acquisition, 15(2), 165-179.

Sheen, R. (2003). Focus on form-a myth in the making? ELT Journal, 57(3), 225-233.

Shook, D. (1994). FL/L2 reading, grammatical information, and the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning, 5(2), 57-93.

Spada, N. (1997). Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition: A review of classroom and laboratory research. Language Teaching, 30(2), 73-87.

Soodmand Afshar, H. (2021). Task-related focus-on-forms foreign language vocabulary development: Focus on spoken form and word parts. System, 96. 10.1016/j.system.2020.102406.

Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University press.

VanPatten, B., & Cadierno, T. (1993). Explicit instruction and output processing. Studies in second language Acquisition, 15(2), 225-241.

VanPatten, B., & Sanz, C. (1995). From input to output: processing instruction and communicative tasks. In F. Eckman, D. Highland, P. Lee, J. Mileham, & R. Weber (Eds.), Second language acquisition theory and pedagogy (pp. 169-185). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

White, L., Spada, N., Lightbown, P., & Ranta, L. (1991). Input enhancement and L2 question formation. Applied Linguistics, 12(4), 416-432.

Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Williams, J. (1999). Memory, attention, and inductive learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21(1), 1-48.

Williams, J., & Evans, J. (1998). What kind of focus and on which forms? In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 139-155). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University press.

Wong, W. (2001). Modality and attention to meaning and form in the input. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(3), 345-368.